Collective Action in Transitioning States: A Study of Social Enterprise

For many governments, the rise of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship has been politically beneficial, with the state actively engaging with these organisations to help deal with the social issues they are unable to (Kerlin, 2009). This has been particularly prevalent in developing nations, where the adoption of structural adjustment and liberalisation of markets has traditionally weakened the states’ ability to provide required social welfare provisions (Stewart, 1995). In these environments, social enterprises can be a sustainable and cost-efficient method of providing public goods, drawing on funding from the newly opened markets, rather than government investment, which encourages the development of positive legislative environments and public-private partnerships. However, for countries with autocratic or one-party traditions, where strong links exist between the political, social, and economic spheres of power, change in one, threatens reform in the other. With trade and market liberalisation creating opportunities for competing societal powers, autocratic political actors carefully manage economic transition, managing the requirement for change, whilst limiting opportunities for potential competition. This impacts on the development of social enterprise, which require access to markets, open ‘learning networks’ for knowledge transfer, and independence in decision-making to allow them to focus on social missions that fall outside of government policy (Spear et al., 2013). Using the theoretical frame of Fligstein and McAdam’s (2011) Strategic Action Fields, a model of meso-level collective action, this thesis examines the evolving relationships of the social enterprises (‘Challengers’ who want to change the status quo), social enterprise support networks (‘Governance units’ who uphold the rules and maintain the field), and political stakeholders (‘Incumbents’ who are hold positions of power and privilege). Through this, the thesis looks at three emerging aspects of the social enterprise field: the emergence of field governance; the development of organisational middle structures; and the supply and demand of social entrepreneurs. Through these themes the research challenges the theoretical assumption that the governance of the emerging field evolves top-down, with incumbents empowering politically aligned governance units to carry out action on their behalf. Instead, the suggestion is that governance evolves ‘bottom-up’, with former challengers moving into the associative space to try and create more productive relationships for their peers. This would mean that the study of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship should not begin with the proposition that they lack agency or influence when operating in challenging environments. A result of the bottom-up move, though, is the failure of the support systems to bridge a significant re-emerging organisational gap: middle management. The participating support systems seek to develop social entrepreneurs into all-encompassing organisational heroes responsible for all aspects of their business. For the social enterprises, the critical issue impacting this is one of labour. Unable to attract middle managers, entrepreneurs are over encumbered with responsibility and thus organisational middle structures, such as marketing or human resources are weakened. This issue is also aggravated by a ‘wicked problem’ in the emerging field, with social enterprises having to balance the perception of the prioritising of social impact, and the offering of competitive worker compensation and opportunity (Rittel and Weber, 1973). Lastly, the Republic of Poland and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam have developed positive environments for the development of social entrepreneurship, with growing economies, increasing participation in Higher Education, and availability of higher skilled jobs. In Vietnam; however, with high trust in the state, campaigns of third sector coercion, and the state seeking a central position in the delivery of public goods, there are less opportunities for social entrepreneurial action. In Poland, participating social entrepreneurs noted the perception of governmental failure spurred them into developing innovative solutions to social problems, overtly challenge state dominance, and serving groups that are often targeted by the state. The theoretical assumption, therefore, is that antagonism is a vital component in the development of an active social entrepreneurial field. The research explores these findings with reference to policy frameworks (and policy recommendations such as apprenticeship schemes), as well as detailing new avenues for future research.